Discovering Misattributed Paternity After DNA Testing and its Impact on Psychological Well-Being and Identity Formation

Ashley Shepard; David Diamond; Laura Willard; Jennifer Staples; Kirshjah Martin; Nicole Witherspoon

doi:10.29333/ajqr/12611

Ashley Shepard ¹ ^* , David Diamond ¹, Laura Willard ¹, Jennifer Staples ¹, Kirshjah Martin ¹, Nicole Witherspoon ¹

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AM J QUALITATIVE RES, Volume 6, Issue 3, pp. 189-211

https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/12611

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Abstract

This study explored how discovering misattributed paternity in adulthood after commercial DNA testing impacts psychological well-being and identity formation. Thirty-three subjects participated in this phenomenological qualitative study. Eighteen had experienced misattributed paternity, while the other 15 subjects discovered misattributed paternity due to being donor conceived. Three fundamental themes emerged in both the misattributed group and donor-conceived group that could be perceived as the core themes are: (a) sadness, grief, and loss; (b) seeking connection and belonging; and (c) betrayal and anger. Other significant themes revealed by both groups included: Otherness, Curiosity, Relief and Comfort, Surprise, Acceptance, and Empathy and Rationalization. Additional themes also revealed by the donor-conceived group, but not revealed in the misattributed group are: (a) existential concerns, (b) self-assuredness, and (c) right to know and advocacy. Overall, findings in this study reveal unique experiences between both groups, suggesting the circumstances around conception and discovery vary depending on misattributed status.

Keywords: misattributed paternity, DNA testing, psychological well-being, identity, donor-conceived

References

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Allan, S. (2012). Donor conception, secrecy and the search for information. Journal of Law and Medicine, 19(4), 631-650. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2102423
Ayres, L., Kavanaugh, K., & Knafl, K. A. (2003). Within-case and across-case approaches to qualitative data analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 13(6), 871–883. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732303013006008
Baden, A. L., Shadel, D., Morgan, R., White, E. E., Harrington, E. S., Christian, N., & Bates, T. A. (2019). Delaying adoption disclosure: A survey of late discovery adoptees. Journal of Family Issues, 40(9), 1154-1180. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x19829503
Beeson, D. R., Jennings, P. K., & Kramer, W. (2011). Offspring searching for their sperm donors: How family type shapes the process. Human Reproduction, 26(9), 2415-2424. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/der202
Bosmans, K., Mousaid, S., Cuyper, N. D., Hardonk, S., Louckx, F., & Vanroelen, C. (2016). Dirty work, dirty worker? Stigmatisation and coping strategies among domestic workers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 92, 54-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2015.11.008
Bruce, E., & Schultz, C. (2002). Non‐finite loss and challenges to communication between parents and professionals. British Journal of Special Education, 29(1), 9-13. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8527.00231
Cohen, G., Coan, T., Ottey, M., & Boyd, C. (2016). Sperm donor anonymity and compensation: An experiment with American sperm donors. Journal of Law and the Biosciences, 3(3), 468-488. https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsw052
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among the five approaches. SAGE Publications.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2006). Hedonia, eudaimonia, and well-being: An introduction. Journal of Happiness Studies,9(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9018-1
Doka, K. J. (1989). Disenfranchised grief: Recognizing hidden sorrow. Lexington Books/D.C. Heath.
Draper, H. (2007). Paternity fraud and compensation for misattributed paternity. Journal of Medical Ethics, 33(8), 475–480. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.2005.013268
Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. Norton.
Friedman, S. (1980). Artificial insemination with donor semen mixed with semen of the infertile husband. Fertility and Sterility, 33(2), 125-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0015-0282(16)44531-0
Gao, J., & Mclellan, R. (2018). Using Ryff’s scales of psychological well-being in adolescents inmainland China. BMC Psychology, 6(1), 17-29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-018-0231-6
Golombok, S., Blake, L., Casey, P., Roman, G., & Jadva, V. (2013). Children born through reproductive donation: A longitudinal study of psychological adjustment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(6), 653-660. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12015
Harris, D., & Winokuer, H. R. (2021). Principles and practice of grief counseling. Springer.
Ilioi, E., Blake, L., Jadva, V., Roman, G., & Golombok, S. (2016). The role of age of disclosure of biological origins in the psychological wellbeing of adolescents conceived by reproductive donation: A longitudinal study from age 1 to age 14. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(3), 315–324. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12667
Jadva, V., Freeman, T., Kramer, W., & Golombok, S. (2009). The experiences of adolescents and adults conceived by sperm donation: comparisons by age of disclosure and family type. Human Reproduction, 24(8), 1909–1919. doi: 10.1093/humrep/dep110
Kirk, H. D. (1967). Shared fate: a theory of adoption and mental health. Free Press of Glencoe.
Lowe, G., Pugh, J., Kahane, G., Corben, L., Lewis, S., Delatycki, M., & Savulescu, J. (2017). How should we deal with misattributed paternity? A survey of lay public attitudes. AJOB Empirical Bioethics,8(4), 234-242. https://doi.org/10.1080/23294515.2017.1378751
Olshansky, S. (1962). Chronic sorrow: A response to having a mentally defective child. Social Casework, 43(4), 190–193. https://doi.org/10.1177/104438946204300404
Pennings, G. (2017). Disclosure of donor conception, age of disclosure and the well-being of donor offspring. Human Reproduction, 32(5), 969-973. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dex056
Readings, J., Blake, L., Casey, P., Jadva, V., & Golombok, S. (2011). Secrecy, disclosure and everything in-between: Decisions of parents of children conceived by donor insemination, egg donation and surrogacy. Reproductive BioMedicine Online, 22(5), 485-495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rbmo.2011.01.014
Regalado, A. (2018, February 13). 2017 was the year consumer DNA testing blew up. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/610233/2017-was-the-year-consumer-dna-testing-blew-up/
Regalado, A. (2020, April 02). More than 26 million people have taken an at-home ancestry test. https://www.technologyreview.com/2019/02/11/103446/more-than-26-million-people-have-taken-an-at-home-ancestry-test/
Rights of the Child. (1990, September 2). Retrieved March 22, 2020, from https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 141-166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141
Sants, H. J. (1964). Genealogical bewilderment in children with substitute parents. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 37(2), 133–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.20448341.1964.tb01981.x
Solomon, G. E., Johnson, S. C., Zaitchik, D., & Carey, S. (1996). Like father, like son: Young children’s understanding of how and why offspring resemble their parents. Child Development, 67(1), 151-171. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131693
Tallandini, M. A., Zanchettin, L., Gronchi, G., & Morsan, V. (2016). Parental disclosure of Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) conception to their children: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Human Reproduction, 31(6), 1275–1287. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dew068
Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(4), 678-691. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.4.678
Wydra, M., O'brien, K. M., & Merson, E. S. (2012). In their own words: Adopted persons’ experiences of adoption disclosure and discussion in their families. Journal of Family Social Work, 15(1), 62-77. https://doi.org/10.1080/10522158.2012.642616
Alexander, L. B., Hollingsworth, L. D., Dore, M. M., & Hoopes, J. W. (2004). A family of trust: African American parents’ stories of adoption disclosure. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 74(4), 448-455. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.74.4.448
Allan, S. (2012). Donor conception, secrecy and the search for information. Journal of Law and Medicine, 19(4), 631-650. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2102423
Ayres, L., Kavanaugh, K., & Knafl, K. A. (2003). Within-case and across-case approaches to qualitative data analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 13(6), 871–883. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732303013006008
Baden, A. L., Shadel, D., Morgan, R., White, E. E., Harrington, E. S., Christian, N., & Bates, T. A. (2019). Delaying adoption disclosure: A survey of late discovery adoptees. Journal of Family Issues, 40(9), 1154-1180. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x19829503
Beeson, D. R., Jennings, P. K., & Kramer, W. (2011). Offspring searching for their sperm donors: How family type shapes the process. Human Reproduction, 26(9), 2415-2424. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/der202
Bosmans, K., Mousaid, S., Cuyper, N. D., Hardonk, S., Louckx, F., & Vanroelen, C. (2016). Dirty work, dirty worker? Stigmatisation and coping strategies among domestic workers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 92, 54-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2015.11.008
Bruce, E., & Schultz, C. (2002). Non‐finite loss and challenges to communication between parents and professionals. British Journal of Special Education, 29(1), 9-13. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8527.00231
Cohen, G., Coan, T., Ottey, M., & Boyd, C. (2016). Sperm donor anonymity and compensation: An experiment with American sperm donors. Journal of Law and the Biosciences, 3(3), 468-488. https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsw052
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among the five approaches. SAGE Publications.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2006). Hedonia, eudaimonia, and well-being: An introduction. Journal of Happiness Studies,9(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9018-1
Doka, K. J. (1989). Disenfranchised grief: Recognizing hidden sorrow. Lexington Books/D.C. Heath.
Draper, H. (2007). Paternity fraud and compensation for misattributed paternity. Journal of Medical Ethics, 33(8), 475–480. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.2005.013268
Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. Norton.
Friedman, S. (1980). Artificial insemination with donor semen mixed with semen of the infertile husband. Fertility and Sterility, 33(2), 125-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0015-0282(16)44531-0
Gao, J., & Mclellan, R. (2018). Using Ryff’s scales of psychological well-being in adolescents inmainland China. BMC Psychology, 6(1), 17-29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-018-0231-6
Golombok, S., Blake, L., Casey, P., Roman, G., & Jadva, V. (2013). Children born through reproductive donation: A longitudinal study of psychological adjustment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(6), 653-660. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12015
Harris, D., & Winokuer, H. R. (2021). Principles and practice of grief counseling. Springer.
Ilioi, E., Blake, L., Jadva, V., Roman, G., & Golombok, S. (2016). The role of age of disclosure of biological origins in the psychological wellbeing of adolescents conceived by reproductive donation: A longitudinal study from age 1 to age 14. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(3), 315–324. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12667
Jadva, V., Freeman, T., Kramer, W., & Golombok, S. (2009). The experiences of adolescents and adults conceived by sperm donation: comparisons by age of disclosure and family type. Human Reproduction, 24(8), 1909–1919. doi: 10.1093/humrep/dep110
Kirk, H. D. (1967). Shared fate: a theory of adoption and mental health. Free Press of Glencoe.
Lowe, G., Pugh, J., Kahane, G., Corben, L., Lewis, S., Delatycki, M., & Savulescu, J. (2017). How should we deal with misattributed paternity? A survey of lay public attitudes. AJOB Empirical Bioethics,8(4), 234-242. https://doi.org/10.1080/23294515.2017.1378751
Olshansky, S. (1962). Chronic sorrow: A response to having a mentally defective child. Social Casework, 43(4), 190–193. https://doi.org/10.1177/104438946204300404
Pennings, G. (2017). Disclosure of donor conception, age of disclosure and the well-being of donor offspring. Human Reproduction, 32(5), 969-973. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dex056
Readings, J., Blake, L., Casey, P., Jadva, V., & Golombok, S. (2011). Secrecy, disclosure and everything in-between: Decisions of parents of children conceived by donor insemination, egg donation and surrogacy. Reproductive BioMedicine Online, 22(5), 485-495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rbmo.2011.01.014
Regalado, A. (2018, February 13). 2017 was the year consumer DNA testing blew up. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/610233/2017-was-the-year-consumer-dna-testing-blew-up/
Regalado, A. (2020, April 02). More than 26 million people have taken an at-home ancestry test. https://www.technologyreview.com/2019/02/11/103446/more-than-26-million-people-have-taken-an-at-home-ancestry-test/
Rights of the Child. (1990, September 2). Retrieved March 22, 2020, from https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 141-166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141
Sants, H. J. (1964). Genealogical bewilderment in children with substitute parents. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 37(2), 133–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.20448341.1964.tb01981.x
Solomon, G. E., Johnson, S. C., Zaitchik, D., & Carey, S. (1996). Like father, like son: Young children’s understanding of how and why offspring resemble their parents. Child Development, 67(1), 151-171. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131693
Tallandini, M. A., Zanchettin, L., Gronchi, G., & Morsan, V. (2016). Parental disclosure of Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) conception to their children: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Human Reproduction, 31(6), 1275–1287. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dew068
Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(4), 678-691. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.4.678
Wydra, M., O'brien, K. M., & Merson, E. S. (2012). In their own words: Adopted persons’ experiences of adoption disclosure and discussion in their families. Journal of Family Social Work, 15(1), 62-77. https://doi.org/10.1080/10522158.2012.642616

Citation

Shepard, A., Diamond, D., Willard, L., Staples, J., Martin, K., & Witherspoon, N. (2022). Discovering Misattributed Paternity After DNA Testing and its Impact on Psychological Well-Being and Identity Formation. American Journal of Qualitative Research, 6(3), 189-211. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/12611

Shepard, A., Diamond, D., Willard, L., Staples, J., Martin, K., and Witherspoon, N. (2022). Discovering Misattributed Paternity After DNA Testing and its Impact on Psychological Well-Being and Identity Formation. American Journal of Qualitative Research, 6(3), pp. 189-211. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/12611

Shepard A, Diamond D, Willard L, Staples J, Martin K, Witherspoon N. Discovering Misattributed Paternity After DNA Testing and its Impact on Psychological Well-Being and Identity Formation. AM J QUALITATIVE RES. 2022;6(3), 189-211. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/12611

Shepard, Ashley, David Diamond, Laura Willard, Jennifer Staples, Kirshjah Martin, and Nicole Witherspoon. "Discovering Misattributed Paternity After DNA Testing and its Impact on Psychological Well-Being and Identity Formation". American Journal of Qualitative Research 2022 6 no. 3 (2022): 189-211. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/12611

Shepard, Ashley et al. "Discovering Misattributed Paternity After DNA Testing and its Impact on Psychological Well-Being and Identity Formation". American Journal of Qualitative Research, vol. 6, no. 3, 2022, pp. 189-211. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/12611

Shepard A, Diamond D, Willard L, Staples J, Martin K, Witherspoon N. Discovering Misattributed Paternity After DNA Testing and its Impact on Psychological Well-Being and Identity Formation. AM J QUALITATIVE RES. 2022;6(3):189-211. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/12611